“Unveiling the Rich Legacy of Rwenzururu: A Journey Through Bakonzo History, Customs, and Beliefs”
The Bakonzo are a Bantu ethnic group who settled in the Rwenzori region of southwestern Uganda. They are predominantly found in the Kasese, Bundibugyo, and Ntoroko districts. The Bakonzo are described as being short in stature, with dark skin, and they speak the Konjo language.
Historically, the Bakonzo are considered masters of the mountainous terrain, using the Rwenzori Mountains as a strategic retreat from the hazards of the lower lands, such as diseases. The fertile mountain soil and temperate climate are ideal for cultivation and provide a natural escape from malaria and threats like locust invasions.
The Origin of the Bakonzo
The origins of the Bakonzo people, who inhabit the Rwenzori Mountains of western Uganda, are understood through a combination of migration stories and creation myths, reflecting their deep connection to the land and their place in Bantu history.
One prominent tradition among the Bakonzo suggests that they originally lived on Mount Elgon in eastern Uganda. According to this narrative, they migrated westward with Kintu, a legendary figure in Bantu mythology. After reaching Buganda, they continued to the Rwenzori highlands around the 14th century, drawn by the region’s climate, similar to their former home on Mount Elgon.
Another tradition asserts that the Bakonzo are descendants of the Baiyra, an ancient people who lived in western Uganda in pre-colonial times. According to this narrative, their ancestors did not migrate but emerged from the caves of Mount Rwenzori, symbolizing an indigenous origin tied directly to the mountains. This belief emphasizes the sacredness of the Rwenzori Mountains and reflects the Bakonzo’s spiritual and cultural ties to the region.
Scholars often propose that the Bakonzo, like many other Bantu-speaking groups, likely originated from the Congo Basin and migrated eastward into the Rwenzori region.
The Formation of the Rwenzururu Kingdom
The Rwenzururu Kingdom emerged from the long-standing marginalization of the Bakonzo and Bamba people during British colonial rule and post-independence Uganda. Historically, the Bakonzo and Bamba lived in the Rwenzori Mountains in the regions of Bwamba ( Bundibugyo) and Busongora (Kasese), areas that were not initially part of the Toro Kingdom. However, when Uganda became a British protectorate, these regions were annexed and brought under the administration of the Toro Kingdom.
In the late 19th century, British colonial authorities created the Toro Kingdom as a tool to govern the region, with the Batoro people dominating administrative and political positions. In contrast, the Bakonzo and Bamba were marginalized, treated as second-class citizens, denied education, and excluded from economic opportunities.
After Uganda gained independence in 1962, the Bakonzo and Bamba initially sought a separate district to address their grievances, including unequal access to power and resources. However, when these requests were rejected, the Rwenzururu movement emerged under the leadership of Isaya Mukirania. In 1962, the movement declared the independent state of “Rwenzururu,” asserting its autonomy.
The movement escalated into armed conflict in the mid-1960s, with the Bakonzo and Bamba taking up arms against Toro Kingdom militias and later clashing with government forces. The conflict continued throughout the 1970s and early 1980s as Bakonzo and Bamba pushed for recognition of their identity and rights.
In 1982, under President Milton Obote, a settlement was reached in which the Rwenzururu leaders agreed to abandon the goal of secession in exchange for local autonomy, administrative appointments for the Bakonzo and Bamba, and economic benefits such as scholarships and vehicles. The settlement was negotiated without third-party mediation, which the government believed would legitimize the Rwenzururu’s secessionist claims.
After years of struggle and negotiation, the Ugandan government officially recognized the Rwenzururu Kingdom as a cultural institution on October 9, 2009. This recognition marked the formal acknowledgment of the Bakonzo’s cultural independence from the Toro Kingdom. Charles Mumbere was installed as the Omusinga (king), fulfilling the aspirations of many Bakonzo and Bamba for recognition, though it remained a cultural rather than a political institution.
The official recognition came after a survey by Makerere University found that 87% of the local population supported the creation of the Rwenzururu Kingdom. In 2005, President Yoweri Kaguta Museveni directed a ministerial committee to investigate the matter, leading to the eventual formalization of the kingdom. Although there was no historical precedent for a “Rwenzururu Kingdom,” the government ultimately bowed to the will of the people.
Customs and Beliefs of the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo believed in various spirits, including Kithasamba, Nzurur, Nyamuhunga, Kalisa, Nyabarika, Nyabibuya, Kalisya, Ndyoka, and Musangania. Kithasamba was regarded as the supreme god of the Bakonzo. It was believed that he resided at the top of Mount Rwenzori. Kithasamba, meaning “the great one who does not need to climb,” signified his position high above Mount Rwenzori. The Bakonzo believed that Kithasamba occupied the highest parts of the mountain, which were considered sacred and forbidden to people. It was said that Kithasamba made these areas cold to prevent access, creating an aura of reverence and mystery around the mountain. Anyone who misbehaved while on the mountain risked punishment from the gods, who were always watching.
Nyabarika was considered the most powerful spirit, possessing the ability to heal, kill, haunt, and influence fertility. Nyabarika could either grant or deny fertility and determine the success of hunting expeditions.
Kalisa was viewed as a monstrous figure, described as having one arm, one eye, one leg, and one ear. Despite his fearsome appearance, Kalisa was important, particularly in matters related to hunting.
The Bakonzo also believed in Kororo, a spirit responsible for making judgments in disputes. Kororo was especially invoked in cases of conflict, such as land disputes. When a dispute arose, the involved parties were taken to the Kororo waterfall, where a ritual was performed by spiritual leaders to determine who was in the right.
Before the ritual began, the wife of the ridge leader or spiritual leader prepared the first meal for those participating. A hen or goat was slaughtered according to the gods’ instructions, and pieces of meat were placed on banana leaves and taken to the Esyondekere (“shrine”). Musical instruments, such as the Engoma drum, Esyonzenda ankle bells, and shakers, were played while participants sang to invoke Kororo’s ancestral spirit.
The two disputing parties would make vows, such as, “If I am not the rightful owner of the property in question, let the waters of the falls judge me wrong.” This ritual was a powerful deterrent to lying, stealing, or senseless fighting over property. The fear of being judged at Kororo Falls often compelled people to tell the truth even before the ritual took place.
The ritual involved the use of herbs and the sacrifice of birds and animals. Whenever there was a conflict, an ark-like structure made of Omuramura grass was built, and both parties were required to pass through the ark. Whoever collapsed after passing through the ark was considered guilty and would stagger toward the waterfall to drink water, but often ended up drowning.
Customs and Beliefs Around Childbirth and Naming Among the Bakonzo
When a girl gave birth in the Bakonzo culture, her family was informed so they could organize a ceremony known as “Eitwa Omulhemba” within seven days after the birth. This ceremony involved preparing the new mother’s favorite food. A thread, called “Omulhemba,” was tied around her waist to prevent her stomach from stretching. The girl, along with some of her family members, would prepare a meal of Obundu and Obinyangwa, which was then served by her husband and his family during the ritual. In return, the husband’s family provided raw food, often including bananas, meat, and other items.
After giving birth, while the new mother was still bleeding, she was considered “unclean” and was not allowed to sleep on the marital bed. She slept on the ground with her baby for about six weeks to recover from labor and pregnancy. During this time, the husband did not sleep with her. After six weeks, another ceremony was held to introduce the baby to the husband’s family. On this day, the baby was taken out of the house and introduced to the husband’s parents, who offered gifts such as money and other items to both the husband and wife.
Birth of Twins (Bahasa)
When a woman gave birth to twins, known as “Bahasa,” she was named “Nyabahasa.” She had to return to her parents’ home for a ceremony called “Erihahya Olhuhasa.” In this tradition, the woman was believed to bring twins into the family. Gifts, which were supposed to be in pairs, were offered during the ceremony to welcome the twins into the family and incorporate them into the family’s existing lineage of twins. Traditionally, animal skins (“Enshangobi”) were laid out for the parents to sit on while carrying the twins. The girl’s family and relatives sang seven traditional songs for the twins, and anyone who started singing had to complete all seven songs, as no other songs were permitted during the ceremony.
The following day, the parents of the twins returned home with a goat and celebrated the twins again. If the twins cried excessively or refused to breastfeed during the ceremony, it was considered a bad omen, and it was believed that the mother might have committed adultery. In such cases, the mother had to apologize to her husband and his family and explain her actions.
Once the new mother had healed and was ready to resume her marital duties, a final ceremony called “Olhuhasa” was performed. In this ceremony, the woman was required to sleep with one of her husband’s nephews, usually the eldest. If he refused, another nephew was chosen. The ritual was carried out inside a hut in front of the husband’s house. The husband was responsible for informing his social circle about the ceremony. It was believed that the twins could die if this ritual was not performed.
In cases where a woman was unable to conceive after marriage, she was often blamed and considered a social misfit. It was assumed that she may have committed some abomination that prevented her from having children.
While the Bakonzo had rich and complex cultural traditions, some of these practices, especially those involving rituals like “Olhuhasa,” may now be outdated or rare. Many communities have evolved, and some traditions have diminished or ceased due to modern changes and legal considerations.
Naming Among the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo name their children based on the order and circumstances of their birth.
Names for Boys:
The first boy is named Baluku. If all of his grandparents were alive at his birth, he would be named Mumbere.
The second boy is named Bwambale, with Mbaju as a short form.
The third boy is named Masereka (shortened to Marathi or Maate).
The fourth boy is named Kuule.
The fifth boy is named Thembo.
The sixth boy is named Mbusa.
The seventh boy is named Ndungo, usually regarded as the lastborn. If an eighth son is born, he can be given any name.
Names for Girls
The firstborn girl is named Masika, but if both her grandparents were alive at her birth, she may be named Musoki.
For a child to be named Mumbere or Masika, the parents must be officially married. Children born out of wedlock are not given these names.
The second girl is named Biira or Kabiira.
The third girl is named Kabugho or Kaswera.
The fourth girl is named Mbambu or Kahambu (meaning “little girl”).
The fifth girl is named Ithungu.
The sixth girl is named Kyakimwa.
The seventh girl is named Nzyabake.
The last girl child is named Balhubasa. However, due to modern family planning practices, it is rare for families to have more than six daughters, making names like Nzyabake and Balhubasa uncommon.
If a girl is born after many boys, or after the firstborn boy, she is named Muhindo or Mbindule.
The naming of Twins:
Twins are given special names, similar to other Bantu tribes like the Baganda and Basoga. Regardless of gender, the older twin is named Nguru, and the younger twin is named Ndobya. The child born after the twins is named Kitsa, followed by Kamalha. If another child is born after Kamalha, they are named Kibaya.
Circumcision (Erabania) among the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo consider circumcision a vital rite of passage, marking the transition from boyhood to manhood. Traditionally, circumcision was performed annually in a ceremony known as Olhusamba, which involved the circumcision of groups of boys aged between 8 and 18. Boys below this age group were not allowed to participate.
During the ritual, boys to be circumcised would march in groups toward the designated venue, usually set near a river. A hut called Omupinda was constructed at the venue specifically for the circumcision ceremony.
After circumcision, several restrictions were placed on the parents and the community. The parents of the circumcised boys were prohibited from engaging in sexual intercourse or quarreling with each other, as it was believed this could delay the boys’ healing process. Additionally, no women were allowed to look at the boys after circumcision, as this, too, was thought to prolong their recovery.
The river played a crucial role in the healing process. Twice a day, in the morning and evening, the boys would sit in the cold water, which was believed to aid in their healing until they fully recovered.
The ceremony began with traditional dances called Omukumu, which were performed at the start of the ritual. During this time, women were permitted to look at the boys, but only while the dances were being performed. Once the boys had completely healed, the women who had participated in the Omukumu dance were the ones to dismantle the Omupinda hut, signifying the end of the ritual. After this, the boys were officially allowed to return home, marking their initiation into manhood. However, Olhusamba (group circumcision) was discontinued in 1973 due to challenges posed by the spread of Christianity in the Rwenzori region. In 1975, Idi Amin banned circumcision rituals among non-Muslims, believing that these gatherings could be used to cover up military operations and training. As a result, parents began taking their boys to hospitals for circumcision, or they would invite someone who could perform the procedure to their homes.
Marriage among the Bakonzo
Marriage among the Bakonzo is recognized when the dowry, known as Erisunga, is paid, and only circumcised boys are allowed to marry, and virginity is highly valued for girls before marriage.
Traditionally, the boy’s family selected a bride for their son. They would conduct research into the girl’s behavior, family background, and social standing by consulting neighbors and other families in the community where the girl lived. This ensured that the chosen bride came from a reputable family and possessed desirable qualities for marriage.
The boy had no choice but to marry the girl his parents selected for him. His parents would persuade him to love the girl they had chosen.
It was also the responsibility of the girl’s parents to investigate the boy’s family, ensuring that their daughter was marrying into the right family.
In some cases, parents could reserve a future bride for their son, even if the family had not yet had a daughter. When the wife of the head of a family was pregnant, the boy’s family would show their interest by giving goat or sheep’s skin, softened with Embono oil, to the girl’s family. If a girl was born, the skin would be used to carry her until she reached a certain age.
When the girl turned 8 years old, she would be informed of the family she would marry into. Occasionally, she would visit that family, delivering items and playing with their children to learn their behaviors and customs. At the age of 10, she would be officially handed over to the boy’s family. However, she was not allowed to sleep with the boy, who was usually around 12–14 years old. Instead, she slept with her mother-in-law until she turned 14. The mother-in-law would groom the girl, teaching her about marital duties and responsibilities. Once the parents felt their children were ready for marriage, the father-in-law would provide materials, such as poles and bundles of reeds, to help the boy construct a house where he would live with his wife.
Before the marriage ceremony, the boy and his family would visit the girl’s family to agree on the dowry (Omukagha). Once they reached an agreement, a date would be set for the boy’s family to return with the dowry and officially take the girl from her family.
The dowry typically included:
12 goats, 12 Ebisya of Tonto (traditional brew) or 24 jerry cans of alcohol, bedsheets wrapped in a blanket, a mattress, and a hoe
On the day of the ceremony, a meal known as “staple food” (Obundu and Obinyangwa) would be prepared, and both families would share this meal to celebrate the union of their children.
After the meal, the bride would prepare to leave her family and go with her husband.
The 12 goats would be passed through the house as part of the ritual. If the goats urinated while moving through the house, it was considered a sign of a successful marriage and that the girl’s family approved of the marriage and loved the boy. If the goats failed to urinate, it is believed that the marriage would not last longer.
However, before leaving, a final ritual would take place. Family members would sit around the bride, and each member would take turns carrying her on their lap, offering advice and blessings. The head of the family would give the final remarks before she left.
Handling of death by the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo have detailed practices for handling the deceased, which promote respect for the dead. When a person dies, there is a special way of communicating the death of someone in society, especially the mature people in the community. The drums would be beaten seven times by the clan leader of the society to communicate the bad news in the society, and upon hearing the drums, it could be understood by everyone in society that a disaster of death had occurred in the area, and news would be spread by word of mouth from one individual to another.
The death of the child
Losing a child among the Bakonzo would bring untold grief to the parents. However, limited rituals would be performed upon the death of a minor. The mother would be required to tie a piece of cloth called ‘Omulemba” or a banana fiber called “Omulitsi” around her waist as a sign of grief for losing her child. This was done to make her strong and supportive since many used to lose their appetite, which would cause them to collapse over hunger.
The father of the child was prohibited from wearing sandals until the funeral rituals were done as a sign of the sorrowful moment.
The mother of the deceased child would sit or sleep around the dead body laid in the sitting room until its burial. In Bakonzo culture, it is the responsibility of the children to ensure that their parents are offered decent burial ceremonies at their deaths; thus, losing a child among the Bakonzo was the worst moment for the parents.
The death of a mature person.
Upon the death of a mature person
The deceased was handled with care in a way that it was washed, and the hair and nails were cut and wrapped in a backcloth known as “Esyongurungu.” It was believed that mishandling the dead could annoy the deceased and the ancestors, who in return would cause calamities to the family like barrenness, famine, or even the death of other family members.
The body is then laid down in the sitting room, where people would find it for mourning. The water used for cleaning the dead body is poured far away because it was believed that bad people would use it to practice witchcraft against others.
The relatives, family members, and neighbors would gather to console the family of the deceased. The mourners were not allowed to say bad things about the deceased until the burial, as it would arouse the ancestors’ anger.
A nephew locally known as Omuhwa had a significant role to play upon the death of his maternal uncle. It was believed that the clan calamity could not affect him since he was not of their clan. He was the only person responsible for destroying the bed of the family head, Nyineka, immediately after the death of the head of the family. The destruction of the bed was intended to prevent anyone from using the bed on which the deceased used to sleep because it was looked at as disrespectful to sleep on the bed of the head of the family after his death.
It was also done to confirm that the head of the family, the major basis upon which the family was formed, had passed on and to emphasize the man’s authority over women and the entire household.
After the bed was destroyed, a ritual followed in which either a hen or a male goat reared by the deceased was sacrificed. The reason for this sacrifice was to prevent the animals from crowing or mating again, as their owner had passed on.
The meat from the sacrificed animals was eaten by the mourners who kept vigil around the fireplace during the night, and those who dug the grave the next morning.
It was a tradition among the Bakonzo to let the dead body stay at least a day or two before burial. This was to show the dead that they still loved him and respected him, thus finding it difficult to bury him. This could create time for distant relatives to access the place in time to also attend the burial. However, this was not the case with the minor. Minors were buried the day they died.
When one lost the loved one’ he or she was prohibited from moving out of the home until the funeral was done, especially the widow. The wife of the deceased was further denied sitting on a chair until the last funeral rites. Moving up and down was considered a fear of the dead and was condemned among the Bakonzo. This was intended to show how one loved his or her partner and the fulfillment of the vows they made at the time of marriage.
When the day for the burial reached, the dead were buried near their homestead. This was intended to send a message to the dead and the ancestors that they were still considered part of the family. The Bakonzo believed that the dead could be consulted about the affairs of the living and thus had to be buried near the homesteads such that they could be consulted when the need arose.
During the burial of the head of the family, the widow would take some soil in her hands and pour it into the grave as a sign of bidding farewell to her husband, and vice versa if the roles were reversed.
If a partner did not manage to attend the burial, they were expected to visit the grave later, pick some soil near it, and place it on top of the grave to fulfill the ritual of participating in the burial.
Failure to participate in the burial ceremony of a spouse or relative was believed to bring calamities upon the family member who missed the ceremony.
The Bakonzo believed that they should not finish all the food at a meal, as it was thought that the spirits of the dead would come at night to intervene in family affairs, such as sharing meals. The spirit of the deceased husband was also believed to continue providing security for the family members.
The death of a woman
When a married woman died, she was typically buried at her husband’s burial ground. However, if she died before the dowry had been paid, she was to be taken back and buried at her parents’ home. If she had given birth to a child but the dowry had still not been paid, the man and his family were required to pay the dowry first before the husband could be allowed to bury her at his burial ground.
After the dowry was paid, the two families agreed to organize the burial ceremony, and the body would be buried.
The following day, both families would meet to decide who would take care of the deceased woman’s children. This caretaker was typically chosen from the deceased woman’s family.
Musical Instruments and Cultural Dances of the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo musical instruments are played during different ceremonies, reflecting their cultural diversity, creativity, and resilience. These instruments are used to express aspects of social life, storytelling, and the cultural identity of the Bakonzo.
The main musical instruments include:
Engoma (drum), Esyosondala (xylophone), Amalenge (set of flutes), Enyamulele (flute), Esyonzogha (ankle bells), Enanga (harp), Enzebe (percussion beam), Endigiti (fiddle), Enzenze (zither)
Cultural Dances of the Bakonzo
The Bakonzo perform various dances, each associated with specific ceremonies and cultural practices:
Omukumu Dance: This is an initiation dance performed during the circumcision ceremony known as Olhusumba, where boys are circumcised in a group. It is an important ritual dance signifying the transition to manhood.
Omukobo Dance: This was traditionally a war dance, where two dancers engage in a pantomime of fighting, symbolizing battle scenes or warrior training.
Amasinduka Dance: This dance is performed during burial ceremonies. It reflects the cultural respect and rituals associated with death and mourning in the Bakonzo community.
Ekikibi Dance: Performed mostly at wedding ceremonies, this dance features men and women displaying different, sometimes explicit, erotic movements. It is often interpreted as a courtship dance, celebrating love, marriage, and the joining of families.
In conclusion, while many Bakonzo customs and cultural practices have been preserved, there have also been significant changes and deterioration in Bakonzo traditions. Factors such as the influence of Christianity, Islam, political changes, and modernization in the Rwenzururu region have contributed to the transformation of Bakonzo’s cultural norms and practices
